Kentucky Presbyterian Abolitionists: The Calvinist Case Against Slavery

This is a historical piece that everyone in the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA), the Orthodox Presbyterian Church (OPC), the Evangelical Presbyterian Church (EPC), and the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church (ARP) should read. I first learned about this history on January 30, 2025, and now I am wondering why I never heard of these figures during my time at the two Presbyterian seminaries I attended. I had no idea!

Presbyterianism played a significant role in shaping the moral and intellectual landscape of anti-slavery movements in Kentucky throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. Rooted in the Reformed theological tradition, which emphasized the sovereignty of God, human dignity, and the moral responsibility of Christians, many Kentucky Presbyterians found themselves at odds with the institution of slavery. While the broader denomination struggled with division over slavery, particularly in the lead-up to the American Civil War, several notable Kentucky Presbyterian ministers boldly opposed the practice, using biblical and theological arguments to advocate for emancipation. Among the most influential were John Rankin, David Rice, John Gregg Fee, William L. Breckinridge, and David Nelson, whose commitment to justice and moral reform helped lay the groundwork for abolitionist movements in Kentucky and beyond.

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Rev. John Rakin

John Rankin (1793–1886) was another towering figure among Southern Presbyterian abolitionists, whose work in both Kentucky and Ohio had a profound impact on the movement to end slavery. Born in Tennessee, Rankin was raised in a devout Presbyterian family that instilled in him strong moral and theological convictions. After studying for the ministry, he began preaching in Kentucky, where he quickly gained a reputation for his unwavering opposition to slavery. As a minister in the Presbyterian Church, he used his pulpit to denounce slavery as an affront to Christian principles and human dignity. Rankin was actively involved with the Kentucky Abolition Society, working alongside other anti-slavery advocates to challenge the state's legal and social structures that upheld the institution.

Rankin’s outspoken abolitionism, however, made him a target of hostility in pro-slavery Kentucky. Facing increasing threats and opposition, he relocated across the Ohio River to Ripley, Ohio, where he could continue his work without constant danger. From his home in Ripley, he became one of the most active conductors on the Underground Railroad, helping countless enslaved individuals escape to freedom. His house, situated on a high bluff overlooking the river, served as a beacon of hope for those seeking refuge. He and his family provided shelter, guidance, and resources to those escaping bondage, risking their own safety in the process.

Rankin’s theological justification for abolition was deeply rooted in the Reformed tradition, particularly the belief that all people were created in God’s image and that Christians had a duty to oppose oppression. He believed that slavery was incompatible with the Gospel and that those who claimed biblical support for the institution were misinterpreting Scripture. His book, Letters on American Slavery (1826), was widely circulated and became one of the most influential abolitionist texts of its time. In these letters, Rankin directly confronted the arguments of pro-slavery theologians, dismantling their justifications for human bondage and calling on Christians to actively oppose the practice.

His work in Ripley not only aided freedom seekers but also inspired other abolitionists, including Harriet Beecher Stowe, who cited Rankin as a major influence on Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Rankin’s life and legacy exemplify the courage and moral clarity that defined many Presbyterian abolitionists in the South, demonstrating that faith and justice were inseparable. His contributions to the Underground Railroad, his theological writings, and his relentless advocacy helped to shape the national debate on slavery and galvanized the abolitionist movement.

Rev. David Rice

David Rice, known as the "Apostle to Kentucky," was one of the earliest and most forceful opponents of slavery in the state. Born in Hanover County, Virginia, in 1733, Rice was trained in theology under Samuel Davies, a leading Presbyterian minister and evangelist. As a frontier preacher, he was instrumental in establishing Presbyterian congregations and educational institutions, including the Transylvania Presbytery and Transylvania Seminary, which later became Transylvania University. His influence on early Kentucky was profound, shaping both the region’s religious and intellectual life. Rice’s opposition to slavery was deeply rooted in his theological convictions. At the 1792 Kentucky Constitutional Convention, he delivered one of the most compelling early American anti-slavery addresses, Slavery Inconsistent with Justice and Good Policy. In it, he argued that slavery was morally indefensible, economically harmful, and a threat to societal stability. Rice declared, "To most of us, it is manifest, that we cannot, consistently with justice, reduce our fellow creatures to perpetual slavery."

Rice condemned the practice as a violation of Christian ethics, invoking the Golden Rule (Matthew 7:12): "Do we not violate the rule of doing to others as we would that they should do unto us?" Beyond its moral failures, Rice warned of slavery’s economic and social consequences. He argued that slavery hindered economic growth, discouraged industry, and fostered a culture of dependence. He foresaw that legalizing slavery in Kentucky would lead to deep national divisions, foreshadowing the conflict that erupted into the Civil War decades later. Despite his eloquence and moral clarity, Rice’s attempt to secure gradual emancipation in Kentucky’s constitution was unsuccessful. However, he remained an abolitionist for the rest of his life, advocating through the Kentucky Abolition Society and working to create an intellectual and theological foundation for future anti-slavery movements.

Slavery and the 1792 Kentucky Constitutional Convention

By the time Kentucky sought statehood in 1792, Rice had already developed strong convictions against slavery. At the Kentucky Constitutional Convention, he delivered one of the most significant abolitionist speeches in early American history, titled "Slavery Inconsistent with Justice and Good Policy." His argument rested on three main themes: the moral injustice of slavery, its economic inefficiency, and its long-term social consequences.

1. Slavery Is a Moral Evil

Rice argued that slavery was fundamentally at odds with Christian ethics and natural rights, stating:

"To most of us, it is manifest, that we cannot, consistently with justice, reduce our fellow creatures to perpetual slavery." (Rice, 1792)

He further pressed the Christian case against slavery, invoking the Golden Rule (Matthew 7:12):

"Do we not violate the rule of doing to others as we would that they should do unto us?" (Rice, 1792)

Rice emphasized that no person had a God-given right to own another human being, declaring that slavery was an affront to both divine law and natural law.

2. Slavery Weakens Society

Beyond its moral failures, Rice highlighted the economic and social weaknesses that slavery inflicted on a society:

"Slavery is a reproach to any people. It discourages industry, it promotes dissipation, and it impoverishes the community." (Rice, 1792)

Rice warned that slavery stifled economic progress by creating a culture of dependence and idleness. He argued that a free and industrious population would lead to greater prosperity for Kentucky than a system dependent on forced labor.

Rev. John Gregg Fee

Rev. John Gregg Fee pushed even further, advocating for immediate abolition and complete racial equality. Born in Bracken County, Kentucky, in 1816, Fee was a Presbyterian minister turned independent preacher, whose radical stance against slavery eventually led to his exile from Kentucky before the Civil War. In 1853, Fee founded the town of Berea, Kentucky, naming it after the biblical city where people were eager to receive the truth (Acts 17:10-11). Two years later, in 1855, he established Berea College, the first interracial and coeducational college in the South. His abolitionist views, however, provoked fierce opposition from pro-slavery Kentuckians, who expelled him from the state in 1859. Despite this setback, Fee continued advocating for abolition, publishing pamphlets, delivering speeches, and organizing efforts to educate freed slaves. His conviction that "the cause of Christ and the cause of the oppressed must go together" guided his lifelong work, linking faith with the struggle for justice.

Unlike Fee, William L. Breckinridge supported a gradualist approach to emancipation, arguing for a structured transition away from slavery. A Presbyterian minister, educator, and political reformer, Breckinridge was a member of the influential Breckinridge family and served as president of Centre College and Oakland College during his career. Breckinridge was among the organizers of the Kentucky Colonization Society, which aimed to free enslaved individuals and provide them with passage to Africa. In 1849, he attended the Friends of Emancipation State Convention in Frankfort, where he proposed an amendment to the Kentucky Constitution advocating gradual emancipation and colonization. Although his proposal was considered too radical at the time and ultimately failed, he continued to speak against slavery across Kentucky.

In his 1833 address, Breckinridge acknowledged the moral issues surrounding slavery but criticized abolitionists for their approach, stating, "We do not pretend to justify slavery, but abolitionists err in principle." He believed that "instant abolition is not more sound," reflecting his stance that immediate emancipation was impractical and that a gradual approach was more feasible. Throughout his career, Breckinridge held significant positions within the Presbyterian Church. He was elected moderator of the Presbyterian Church (Old School) General Assembly in 1859, underscoring his influence within the denomination. His advocacy for gradual emancipation and his efforts within both religious and educational institutions highlight the complex positions held by some Southern Presbyterians regarding slavery. His approach sought to balance moral opposition to slavery with practical considerations of the time, contributing to the nuanced discourse on emancipation in the antebellum South.

Rev. David Nelson

David Nelson brought a unique background to the abolitionist movement, transitioning from a career in medicine to ministry before becoming one of the most outspoken anti-slavery voices among Presbyterians. Originally from Tennessee, Nelson studied medicine and became a practicing physician before experiencing a spiritual transformation that led him to pursue the Presbyterian ministry. Nelson’s early career placed him in Kentucky, where he served as pastor of the Presbyterian Church in Danville and worked as an agent for the American Education Society, an organization dedicated to supporting Christian education. However, his increasing opposition to slavery placed him at odds with many in Kentucky, leading to severe backlash. Eventually, facing mounting hostility, Nelson was forced to flee across the Ohio River into Illinois, where he would make his most lasting contributions to the abolitionist movement. In 1836, Nelson established the Mission Institute near Quincy, Illinois, a school that became a vital center for anti-slavery activism and theological education. The institute trained abolitionist preachers, missionaries, and educators, playing a crucial role in the Underground Railroad network.

Under Nelson’s leadership, Mission Institute became a hub where students and activists could engage in direct efforts to undermine slavery, including aiding escaped slaves and producing abolitionist literature. Nelson was known for his eloquence in the pulpit, using both biblical and legal arguments to condemn slavery. His sermons and writings directly confronted the theological justifications used by pro-slavery clergy. He urged Christians to recognize slavery as an affront to both the Gospel and American democratic ideals, arguing that the oppression of enslaved individuals contradicted the principles of freedom and moral responsibility that Presbyterians held dear.

Conclusion

The theological convictions of Rankin, along with David Rice, John Gregg Fee, William L. Breckinridge, and David Nelson, illustrate how Presbyterian beliefs shaped abolitionist efforts in Kentucky. Their opposition to slavery was influenced by the doctrine of the Imago Dei, which asserts that all people, regardless of race or status, are created in God’s image and possess inherent dignity; the conviction that biblical morality is binding on all societies, making slavery a violation of divine justice; and the idea that Christians have a duty to reform society and oppose institutionalized sin. While many Southern Presbyterians defended slavery, arguing that it was biblically sanctioned, these men challenged these interpretations, insisting that slavery was a perversion of Christian teaching.

The abolitionist work of these Presbyterian leaders illustrates the power of religious conviction in shaping social reform. While the institutional Presbyterian Church in the South was largely complicit in maintaining slavery, figures like Rice, Fee, Breckinridge, Nelson, and Rankin stood firm in their theological convictions, proving that biblical faith and abolitionist activism were not mutually exclusive. Each of these leaders contributed uniquely to the cause: Rice laid the intellectual groundwork, Fee built a community of racial equality, Breckinridge sought gradual reform, Nelson established an abolitionist training ground, and Rankin provided a direct path to freedom through the Underground Railroad. Their legacies continue in educational institutions, theological discourse, and the ongoing struggle for justice.

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Citations

Rankin, John .The Conductor: The Story of Rev. John Rankin, Abolitionism's Essential Founding Father, 2024

Rice, David. Slavery Inconsistent with Justice and Good Policy: A Speech Delivered in the Convention Held at Danville, Kentucky, for the Purpose of Framing a Constitution for That State. 1792.

Fee, John Gregg. An Autobiography of John G. Fee, Berea, Kentucky. Chicago: National Christian Association, 1891.

Breckinridge, William L. Address on Slavery and Emancipation in Kentucky. Kentucky Colonization Society, 1849.